Systematic Review and Meta Analysis for Oral Health
Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Feb; 17(3): 938.
The Role of Vitamins in Oral Wellness. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Peter Lingström
threeDepartment of Cariology, Plant of Odontology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, SE-41390 Gothenburg, Sweden; es.ug.igolotnodo@mortsgnil.retep
Guglielmo Campus
2Department of Restorative, Preventive and Paediatric Dentistry, University of Bern, CH-3010 Bern, Switzerland; hc.ebinu.kmz@trennet.naitsirhc (C.T.); hc.ebinu.kmz@supmac.omleilguG (K.C.)
4Department of Surgery, Microsurgery and Medicine Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Sassari, Information technology-07100 Sassari, Italy
Received 2019 Dec 9; Accepted 2020 Jan 29.
Abstract
The association between vitamins and oral health have recently been discussed, yielding increased attending from medical and dental perspectives. The present review aimed to systematically evaluate and appraise the nearly recently scientific papers investigating the role of vitamins in the prevention and treatment of the main oral diseases as hard dental pathological processes and gum/periodontal disease. Randomized controlled trials, cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, comparative studies, validation studies and evaluation studies, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, reporting associations betwixt vitamins and oral diseases or the use of vitamins to prevent or care for oral diseases in patients of any age were included. PubMed, Embase and Scopus were searched to November 2019 using an ad hoc prepared search cord. All the papers meeting the inclusion criteria were subjected to a quality cess. The search identified 1597 papers; 741 were selected afterward removing duplicates. A total of 334 manufactures were excluded after championship and abstract evaluation; 407 were assessed and 73 papers were total-text assessed; other fourteen papers were discharged afterwards full text evaluation, leaving finally 58 papers included. In general, there is weak evidence supporting the association between vitamins and both gingival/periodontal disease and hard dental pathological processes.
Keywords: dental caries, dental erosion, gingivitis, periodontal illness, vitamin/vitamins
1. Introduction
The part of vitamins is well known in a medical perspective, simply the scientific evidence regarding the oral health perspective is still not fully clarified [1].
Vitamins are catalysts for all metabolic reactions, using proteins, fats and carbohydrates for energy, growth and cell maintenance. As only minor amounts of these central substances are obtained from nutrient, vitamins are often administered though food supplements [2]. Fat-soluble vitamins such as A, C, D, East and Chiliad can be stored in the liver and fat tissues as reserves, while h2o-soluble vitamins as B and C are expelled if non captivated.
It is general knowledge that vitamins play a significant effect on oral and general health where its imbalance leads to malnutrition. The process of chewing allows one to extract the greatest possible amount of nutrients and the number and distribution of teeth influence the chewing efficacy. The available literature on the role of vitamins toward oral health is actually scarce with no bachelor data on the prevalence of oral disease related to vitamin deficiencies. Teeth loss affects dietary selection and nutritional status [iii]. A pregnant comeback of vitamin D levels was obtained in partially dentate patients aged ≥ 65 years after the replacement of lost teeth using prosthetic solutions [4]; still, no strong evidence on the upshot of tooth loss on nutritional condition was found in a recent review [5].
Vitamin deficiency prompted several non-specific oral weather condition as glossitis, stomatitis and mucosal ulceration. Glossitis with linear lesions was postulated to be an early sign of vitamin B12 paucity [6].
Vitamin D deficiency leads to reduced os density, osteoporosis, and, as outcome, to the progression of periodontal disease; on the other hand, sufficient levels of this vitamin might reduce the chance of gingivitis and periodontitis; the vitamin acting as immunomodulator, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative agent [7].
In the developmental phases, hard dental tissues are strongly influenced by nutritional condition and consequently to vitamin deficiency [8]. A positive relationship between malnutrition, enamel hypoplasia and caries in the primary dentition was postulated in children [nine,x].
The frequent and prolonged exposure to acidic agents contained in food, beverages, drugs or nutrient supplements can atomic number 82 to significant tooth wear [11]. Chewable vitamin C tablets have been reported to take a pH of nigh two, lower than the disquisitional pH value (5.5) for enamel dissolution, postulating an association betwixt vitamin C and erosion with an odds ratio of 1.16 [12].
The aim of the present study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the scientific papers published during the last 20 years, investigating the clan between vitamins and gingival/periodontal disease and difficult dental pathological processes such every bit dental caries, tooth wear and developmental defects.
2. Materials and Methods
Reporting of this review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline [13]. The review protocol was registered with the International prospective annals of systematic reviews (PROSPERO) system (ID 150613, 12 September 2019).
2.i. Eligibility Criteria
The review included randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cantankerous-sectional studies, comparative studies, validation studies and evaluation studies, reporting vitamins supplementary (foods, tablets etc) or vitamin serum levels in patients of whatsoever historic period. Only papers in English published from ane January 2000 to 30 November 2019 were collected. Electronically published articles and paper-based article were taken into consideration.
two.2. Data Sources
Electronic databases Medline via PubMed, Embase via Ovid and Scopus were screened for articles.
two.3. Information Sources and Search Strategy
Several search strategies were used. The first included a combination of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms and key words: Vitamin OR Vitamins OR oral health, OR caries OR dental caries OR periodontal disease OR dental erosion OR gingivitis. The second strategy included the search string "Vitamins OR Vitamin OR vitamin A OR Vitamin B OR Vitamin C OR Vitamin D OR Vitamins B OR Vitamin E OR Vitamin K" and "Oral health OR oral health OR caries OR dental caries OR root caries OR molar diseases OR salivation OR saliva OR periodontal diseases OR 'dental erosion' OR tooth erosion OR tooth erosion OR 'cariogenic bacteria' OR biofilms OR biofilm OR periodontitis OR periodontitis OR gingivitis OR gingivitis OR dental plaque OR plaque". Cantankerous-referencing was performed using the bibliographies of full-text articles. Grey literature was as well retrieved via opengrey.eu (http://www.opengrey.eu).
2.4. Study Selection
Repeated or duplicate papers were excluded afterward comparing the results from the different research strategies. Three authors (T.Chiliad.W., Chiliad.G.C., and Due north.C.) independently examined all the abstracts of the papers. All the papers meeting the inclusion criteria were obtained in the full-text format. The authors independently assessed the papers to plant whether each newspaper should or should not exist included in the systematic review.
2.v. Data Collection, Summary Measures and Synthesis of Results
Data collection and synthesis was independently carried out past three authors (K.C., Yard.G.C. and N.C.) using an advertising hoc designed information extraction form, without masking periodical title or authors. Unlike studies outcomes were compared on the use of vitamins to preclude or treat oral diseases per dissimilar diseases and publication years. To facilitate the synthesis, the results were summarised in tables where each selected paper was included and the master aspects presented (i.e., vitamin and oral affliction studies, sample, age, healthy subjects or affected by systemic diseases event on the disease, statistically significance). For each newspaper, the following data were searched and recorded when available: a) publication yr and study duration; b) details/characteristics of the participants at baseline; c) oral data, including gingival or periodontal conditions or gingival bleeding or pocket dept or gingival recession or loss of clinical attachment level; actual caries status, caries feel and caries increment measured through DMFT/Southward or dmft/south (for decayed, missing, filled teeth/surfaces in permanent and primary teeth indexes) or ICDAS (for International Caries Detection and Cess Organisation), or other detection systems; the presence of tooth vesture; the presence of developmental enamel defect.
The ProMeta 3 Software (IdoStatistics https://idostatistics.com/prometa3/, Cesena, Italy: Internovi) was used for the meta-analysis of the information. Mean difference (Physician) and odds ratio (OR) were chosen for calculating the issue size. The assay was computed on the different vitamins used. Associations between vitamins and gingivitis, periodontitis, caries and enamel defects were computed separately. The I² statistic was calculated to describe the percentage of variation across studies due to heterogeneity rather than chance [14]. The heterogeneity was categorized as follows: <30% not significant; xxx–50% moderate; 51–75% substantial, and 76–100% considerable. Whether homogeneity was obtained or not, the random effects model (REM) with 95% confidence intervals was chosen every bit the meta-analysis model. Potential moderators as publication type, publication yr, age groups, vitamins were evaluated and analysed to explain which factors might affect heterogeneity. The funnel plot method was used to assess the potential part of publication bias [15]. The significance levels of the upshot sizes were adamant based on the two-tailed exam. In all tests, the level of significance was set at p < 0.05.
2.vi. Assessment of Bias across Studies
The hazard of bias cess was conducted by two authors (C.T., T.G.W.). The methodological quality of the included RCTs was scored co-ordinate to the customized quality assessment tool developed by the National Heart, Lung, and Claret Institute and Enquiry Triangle Plant International for Observational Accomplice and Cross-Sectional Studies and Study Quality Assessment Tools Guidance for Assessing the Quality of Controlled Intervention Studies world wide web.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools [https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-cess-tools]. The tools included items for evaluating potential flaws in study methods or implementation, including sources of bias (e.m., patient selection, performance, attrition, and detection), confounding, report power, the strength of causality in the association between interventions and outcomes and other factors. For each item, "yes," "no," or "cannot determine/non reported/not applicable" was selected. Each study was finally scored as "good" when it has the to the lowest degree risk of bias, "off-white" if information technology is susceptible to some bias and "poor" when significant adventure of bias is conceivable.
Disagreements between authors were resolved past discussion. Where this was non possible, another writer was consulted (M.Grand.C.).
3. Results
The search identified 1597 papers; 741 were selected after removing duplicates. A total of 334 articles were excluded after title and abstract evaluation; 407 were assessed and 73 papers were total-text assessed (Table S1. List of excluded papers); the quality assessment scores of the papers included is presented in the Supplementary Materials (Table S2. Quality assessment), other 14 papers were discharged after total text evaluation (Table S3. List of excluded papers subsequently full text evaluation), leaving 58 included papers (Figure 1).
Flow chart of the search.
Forty papers concerned on gingival/periodontal affliction and 20 (two papers were in common) on hard dental pathological processes were included. Regarding gingival/periodontal disease, 26 papers were ranked of as being of good quality, 12 were classified of fair quality and but 2 of poor quality. Regarding hard dental tissues, sixteen papers were ranked of as beingness of expert quality, four were classified of off-white quality and but ii of poor quality (Table i).
Table 1
Full general characteristics of the studies included: (a) Gingivitis and periodontitis; (b) Hard dental tissues (dental caries, enamel defects).
| Writer | Sources | Type of Written report | Vitamins | Oral Weather condition | Quality Assessment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Li et al., [sixteen] | Clin. Implant. Dent. Relat. Res. 2018, 20, 793–98 | CT | Vit. C | Periodontitis | Practiced |
| Balci Yuce et al., [17] | J. Oral. Sci. 2017, 59,:397–404 | CT | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Adept |
| Deepti et al., [18] | J. Periodontol. 2017, 88, 999–1011 | RCT | Vit. B7 | Gingivitis/Periodontitis | Good |
| Abreu et al. [19] | BMC Oral Health 2016, 16, 89 | CCS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Off-white |
| Adegboye et al., [20] | Public Health Nutr. 2016, 19, 503–51 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Good |
| Gümüş et al., [21] | Arch. Or. Biol. 2016, 63, 1–6 | CS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Proficient |
| Pavlesen et al., [22] | J. Periodontol 2016; 87, 852–63 | RCS | Vit. D | Periodontitis/Molar loss/Caries | Practiced |
| Woelber et al., [23] | BMC Oral Wellness 2016, 17, 28 | RCT | Vit. C, D | Gingivitis/Periodontitis | Good |
| Shimabukuro et al., [24] | J. Periodontol 2015, 86, 27–35 | RCT | Vit. C | Gingivitis | Skilful |
| Lee et al., [25] | Comm Dent. Oral Ep. 2015, 43, 471–8 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Adept |
| Singh et al., [26] | J. Periodontol 2014, 85, 242–nine | RCT | Vit. East | Periodontitis | Good |
| Jimenez et al., [27] | Public Wellness Nutr. 2014, 17, 844–52 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis/Tooth loss | Good |
| Alshouibi et al., [28] | J. Dent. Res. 2013, 92, 689–93 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Good |
| Gokhale et al., [29] | J. Diet. Suppl. 2013, x, 93–104. | RCT | Vit. C | Periodontitis | Off-white |
| Hiremath et al., [30] | Oral Health Prev. Dent. 2013, 11, 61–9 | RCT | Vit. D | Gingivitis | Skilful |
| Iwasaki et al., [31] | Public Wellness Nutr 2013, 16, 330–38 | RCS | Vit. A, D Due east, B6, B9, B12 | Molar loss | Skillful |
| Millen et al., [32] | J. Periodontol 2013, 84, 1243–56 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Adept |
| Teles e t al., [33] | J. Periodontol 2012, 83, 1183–91 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Fair |
| Arya et al., [34] | Neurology 2011, 76,1338–43 | RCT | Vit. B9 | Gingivitis | Off-white |
| Bashutski et al., [35] | J. Dent. Res. 2011, 90, 1007–12 | RCT | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Good |
| Boggess et al., [36] | J. Periodontol 2011, 82, 195–200 | CCS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Skillful |
| Harpenau et al., [37] | J. Calif. Dent. Assoc. 2011, 39, 309–18 | CT | Vit A, C, E, B6, B9, B12 | Gingivitis | Poor |
| Liu et al., [38] | Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr., 2011, xx, 375–82 | RCT | Vit. A, B1, B2, B6, B9, C, D, E | Gingivitis | Off-white |
| Willershausen et al., [39] | Eur. J. Med. Res. 2011, xvi, 514–eighteen | CSS | Vit. B circuitous, C, D, Due east | Gingivitis | Fair |
| Abou Sulaiman, et al., [forty] | J. Periodontol 2010, 81, 1547–54 | RCT | Vit. C | Periodontitis | Off-white |
| Esaki et al., [41] | Oral Affliction 2010, 16,96–101 | CSS | Vit. A, B1, B2 B9, C | Gingivitis | Good |
| Liu, et al., [42] | J. Periodontol 2009, 80, 1114–xx | CT | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Fair |
| Llena et al., [43] | Quintessence Int. 2009, 40, 497–501 | CT | Vit. B3, pro-vitamin B5 | Gingivitis | Poor |
| Linden et al., [44] | J. Clin Periodontol. 2009, 36, 843–4 | CSS | Vit. A | Periodontitis | Good |
| Miley et al., [45] | J. Periodontol. 2009, 80, 1433–39 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Expert |
| Chapple, et al., [46] | J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 657–64 | CSS | Vit. A, C, E | Periodontitis | Good |
| Dietrich et al., [47] | J. Dent. Res 2006, 85, 1134–37 | CSS | Vit. C | Periodontitis | Practiced |
| Erdemir & Bergstrom [48] | J. Clin. Periodontol. 2006, 33, 878–84 | CSS | Vit B9, B12 | Periodontitis | Good |
| Lingstrom et al., [49] | Eur. J. Oral Sci. 2005, 113, twenty–27 | CT | Vit. C | Gingivitis | Good |
| Neiva et al., [50] | J. Periodontol 2005, 76, 1084–91 | RCT | Vit. B complex | Periodontitis | Fair |
| Staudte et al., [51] | Br. Paring. J. 2005, 199, 213–7 | CT | Vit. C | Gingivitis | Off-white |
| Dietrich et al., [52] | Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 80, 108–13 | CSS | Vit. D | Periodontitis | Expert |
| Prasad et al., [53] | J. Indian Soc. Pedo Prev. Dent. 2004 22, 82–91 | CT | Vit. B9 | Gingivitis | Fair |
| Krall et al., [54] | Am. J. Med. 2001, 111, 452-456 | RCT | Vit. D | Tooth loss | Good |
| Petti et al., [55] | Community Dent. Oral Epidemiol. 2000, 28, 407–413 | CCS | Vit. A, B1, B2, B3, C | Gingivitis/Caries | Fair |
| (a) | |||||
| Syed et al., [56] | BioMed. Res. Int. 2019, 4503450 | CSS | Vit. A, C, E | Caries | Poor |
| Gyll et al., [ten] | Nutr. J. 2018 , 17, 11 | CSS | Vit. D | Caries | Expert |
| Kim et al., [57] | BMC Oral Health 2018, 18, 43 | CSS | Vit. D | Caries | Practiced |
| Seminario et al., [58] | J. Dent. Child 2018, 3, 93–101 | CSS | Vit. D | Caries | Good |
| van der Tas et al., [59] | Customs Dent. Oral Epidemiol. 2018, 46, 343-51 | CS | Vit. D | Enamel defects | Good |
| Wójcik et al., [60] | Medicine 2018, 97, eight(e9811) | CSS | Vit. D | Caries | Poor |
| Kühnisch et al., [61] | Clin. Oral Invest. 2017, 21, 2283–2290 | RCS | Vit. D | Caries | Good |
| Reed et al., [62] | Ped. Dent. J. 2017, 27, 21e28 | PiS | Vit. D | Enamel defects | Good |
| Pavlesen et al., [22] | J Periodontol 2016; 87, 852–63 | CSS/PS | Vit. D | Periodontitis/Molar loss/Caries | Skilful |
| Dudding et al., [63] | PLoS One 2015, 10, e0143769 | MRS | Vit. D | Caries | Skilful |
| Kühnisch et al., [64] | J. Dent. Res. 2015, 94, 381–87 | CSS | Vit. D | Enamel Defects | Good |
| Tanaka et al., [65] | Register of Epidemiology 2015, 25, 620e625 | PSA | Vit. D | Caries | Good |
| Schroth et al., [66] | Ped. 2014, 133, e1277-e1284 | RCS | Vit D | Caries | Fair |
| Zhang et al., [67] | BMC Pub. Health 2014, fourteen,7 | CSS | Vit. C | Caries/Erosion | Fair |
| Schroth et al., [68] | BMC Pediatrics 2013, 13:174 | CCS | Vit. D | Caries | Practiced |
| El Aidi et al., [69] | Caries Res 2011, 45, 303–312 | PS | vitamins (unspecified) | Erosion | Good |
| MacKeown et al., [lxx] | Community Paring Oral Epidemiol 2003, 31, 213–20 | CSS | Vit. A, B complex, C, D | Caries | Adept |
| Al Malik et al., [71] | Int. J. Paed. Paring. 2001, 11, 430–39 | CSS | Vit. C | Caries/Erosion | Good |
| Aine et al., [72] | J Oral Pathol Med 2000, 29, 403–9 | CCS | Vit. D | Enamel defects | Good |
| Petti et al., [55] | Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2000; 28, 407–xiii | CCS | Vit. B12 | Gingivitis/Caries | Fair |
| (b) | |||||
Funnel plot analysis (Effigy 2) showed that for gingivitis, caries and enamel defects no study was trimmed, and the overall result sizes observed and estimated were the same 0.81, (95% CI ranging from 0.33 to 1.29; p = 0.06) and 1.04, (95% CI ranging from 0.92 to 1.18; p = 0.52) and 0.27 (95% CI ranging from −0.04 to 0.57; p = 0.09) respectively. Furthermore, no significant publication bias existed based on the Egger regression assay (p = 0.109, 0.79 and 0.19, respectively). Regarding periodontal disease, six studies were trimmed, the observed issue size was 0.97, (95% CI ranging from 0.78 to 1.219; p = 0.78) while the estimated 1 was 0.76, (95% CI ranging from 0.lx to 0.97; p = 0.03) with no statistically significant publication bias (p = 0.91).
Funnel plots of publication bias.
Due to the depression numbers of studies for each vitamin, the heterogeneity was very high for all vitamins ranging from 83.68% for vitamin B to 99.13% for vitamin C (Figure 3). Regarding gingivitis, the heterogeneity assay was measured as considerable with the highest value observed for vitamin C. Heterogeneity analysis for periodontal disease revealed the highest value for vitamin B (97.39%) followed by vitamin D (84.39%) and so vitamin C (13.27%). Heterogeneity analysis for caries showed the highest value for vitamin C (95.50%) while a substantial I2 value was observed for vitamin D (70.06%). Considering enamel defects, there were not enough data levels for performing this analysis.
Random-furnishings model overall level of studies included, categorized by vitamins.
3.1. Gingival/Periodontal Disease
The master characteristics of the included studies regarding gingivitis and periodontitis/tooth loss are reported in Table ii.
Table 2
Main characteristics of the studies included regarding gingivitis and periodontitis/molar loss. (a) Gingivitis, (b) Periodontitis, (c) Molar loss.
| Author (Yr) | Type of Study | Location | N Subjects Historic period-Range | K/F | Study Length | Vitamins Assistants | Report Design (Groups Treatment) | Physical/Pathologic Condition | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gümüş et al., (2016) [21] | CS | The states | 176 (xix–40 yy) | F | --- | Vit. D --- | 3 groups: -pregnancy (n = 59) -mail service-partum (n = 47) -non significant woman (north = 70) Oral examination Vit. D in saliva | Pregnancy post-partum | In pregnancy and post-partum depression level of Vit. D were statistically significantly associated to bleeding on probing |
| Shimabukuro et al., (2015) [24] | RCT | Nihon | 300 (xx–64 yy) | Yard/F | three months | Vit. C toothpaste | two groups: -toothpaste with Vit. C -control toothpaste | None | Vit. C toothpaste statistically significantly reduced gingival inflammation (p < 0.01) |
| Woelber et al., (2017) [23] | RCT | Germany | fifteen (23–70 yy) | M/F | 8 weeks | Vit. C, D --- | 2 groups: -diet modification (n = x) -no diet modification (n = 5) | None | In diet modification group gingival parameters improved (p < 0.05) |
| Gokhale et al., (2013) [29] | RCT | Bharat | 120 (thirty–sixty yy) | Thousand/F | 2 weeks | Vit. C --- | iv groups: -good for you subjects -chronic gingivitis -chronic periodontitis -chronic periodontitis and type 2 diabetes Scaling and root planing with or without vit. C supplementation (450 mg) | Type ii diabetes | A statistically significantly reduction in the bleeding score in the post-obit groups that received Vit. C: -chronic gingivitis -chronic periodontitis and type 2 diabetes |
| Hiremath et al., (2013) [30] | RCT | India | 110 (eighteen–64 yy) | One thousand/F | 3 months | Vit. D tablets | 4 groups: -2000 UI Vit. D -m UI Vit. D -500 UI Vit. D -placebo | None | Gingivitis scores improved: -2000 UI Vit. D: ii.4 at baseline to 0.3 at 3mo. -one thousand UI Vit. D: 2.3 at baseline to 0.5 at three mo. -500 UI Vit. D: 2.two at baseline to 0.8 at three mo. -placebo: 2.2 at baseline to ane.8 at 3 mo. |
| Arya et al., (2011) [34] | RCT | India | 120 (6–15 yy) | M/F | six months | Vit. B9 tablets | two groups: -Vit. B9 (5mg/dice) (n = 62) -placebo (n = 68) Oral examination | Epilepsy | Vit. B9 group 21% adult PIGO Placebo group 88% adult PIGO |
| Liu et al., (2011) [38] | RCT | China | 196 (54–72 yy) | M/F | half dozen months | Vit. A, B1, B2, B6, B9, C, D, E --- | 2 groups: -multivitamin formula (n = 97) -placebo (northward = 99) | Type 2 diabetes | Gingivitis and oral ulcer incidences were lower in multivitamin formula grouping (p < 0.05) |
| Willershausen et al., (2011) [39] | CSS | Federal republic of germany | 40 (24–30 yy) | M/F | iii months | Vit. B complex, C, D, E --- | 2 groups: -multivitamin formula (due north = xix) -no treatment (northward = 21) Oral test, dietary questionnaire, microbiology and blood analysis | None | A slight improvement of gingival inflammation in micronutrients grouping. |
| Esaki et al., (2010) [41] | CSS | Japan | 497 (---) | Yard/F | --- | Vit. A, B1, B2, B9, C --- | Oral examination Dietary questionnaire | None | College bleeding on probing scores statistically significantly associated to lower levels of Vit. C and Vit. B9 (p < 0.01) and Vit. A (p < 0.05) |
| Llena et al., (2009) [43] | CT | Spain | 4 8(xx–34 yy) | M/F | 3 months +3 months | Vit. B3, Pro-vit. B5 toothpaste | two groups (cross-over blueprint): -fluoridated toothpaste -fluoridated toothpaste with Vit. B3/Provit. B5, Oral examination/calculus presence | None | Fluoridated toothpaste with Vit. B3/Provit. B5 provided a statistically significant reduction in calculus presence (p = 0.01) |
| Erdemir &Bergstrom, (2006) [48] | CSS | Sweden | 88(30–69 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. B9, B12 --- | 2 groups: -electric current smokers (n = 45) -not smokers (north = 43) Oral examination/Vit. B9, B12 serum level | None | In smokers higher gingival alphabetize scores and lower Vit. B9 levels (p < 0.05 for both) |
| Lingstrom et al., (2005) [49] | CT | Sweden | xxx (---) | G/F | 3 months | Vit. C gums | 2 groups: -five pieces/twenty-four hour period chewing glue vit. C/without vit. C, no gum apply -x pieces/day chewing gum with vit. C+ carbamide (30 mg + xxx mg), no gum employ Calculus score/plaque/gingivitis | None | A significant reduction in the total calculus score subsequently the employ of Vit. C (33%) and Vit. C + carbamide (12%) gums compared with no gum use |
| Prasad et al., (2004) [53] | CT | Bharat | lx (8–xiii yy) | M/F | 1 year | Vit. B9 tablets | 2 groups: -Vit. B9 (5mg/die) and oral hygiene instruction -oral hygiene instructions lone Oral examination | Epilepsy treated with phenytoin | Gingival overgrowth: 60% in oral hygiene pedagogy alone and fifty% in Vit. B9 and oral hygiene instruction. Filibuster in onset of overgrowth in Vit. B9 and oral hygiene instruction |
| Petti et al., (2000) [55] | CCS | Italian republic | 54 (17–19 yy) | F | --- | Vit. A, B1, B2, B3, C --- | 2 groups: -gingivitis affected -no gingivitis afflicted Oral examination/ three-solar day nutrient tape | None | Vit. B1 and Vit. B2 levels statistically lower in subjects with gingivitis presence |
| (a) | |||||||||
| Balci Yuce et al., (2017) [17] | CT | Turkey | 53 (37–61 yy) | Thou/F | six weeks | Vit. D --- | three groups: -rheumatoid arthritis/periodontitis (RP) -periodontitis (P) -salubrious (H) Treatment: initial periodontal treatment | Rheumatoid arthritis | Periodontal parameters statistically significantly improved in all groups Vit. D was higher in RP and P than in H group and decreased in RP group afterwards treatment |
| Deepti et al., (2017) [xviii] | RCT | India | 60 (fifteen–34 yy) | F | 3-6 months | Vit. B7 --- | ii groups: - scaling-root planing+Vit. B7 - Vit. B7 | Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) | In scaling-root planing+Vit. B7 group a statistically significantly reduction of C-reactive protein and insulin resistance at iii-half dozen mo. was found. Periodontal parameters also improved at 3-6 mo. |
| Abreu et al. (2016) [19] | CCS | Puerto Rico | 4 eight(35-64 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | 2 groups: -moderate/severe periodontitis -healthy | None | Lower OR for periodontitis (OR = 0.885; 95%CI= 0.785, 0.997) for each Vit. D unit of measurement increase |
| Adegboye et al., (2015) [20] | CSS | Denmark | 3287 (18–95 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Dietary questionnaire Oral examination | None | No association Vit. D levels between severe periodontitis presence |
| Lee et al., (2015) [25] | CSS | Korea | 6011 (---) | Grand/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Vit. D level Oral examination (CPI alphabetize) | None | No association between Vit. D level and periodontitis In smokers an clan was plant (OR 1.53, 95% CI 1.07–2.xviii) |
| Singh et al., (2014 [26]) | RCT | Bharat | 60 (22–50 yy) | M/F | 3 months | Vit. E tablets | ii groups: -periodontitis (due north = 38): 19 treated with scaling/root planing (SRP) and 19 with SRP+300 IU Vit. Eastward -healthy (n = 22) no treatment | None | Superoxide dismutase improved in both handling groups, but was higher in SRP+300 IU Vit. East (p < 0.05) |
| Alshouibi et al. (2013) [28] | CS | Us | 562 (---) | M | --- | Vit. D --- | Vit. D intake Oral examination (4 times during 12 yy) | None | Vit. D intake ≥ 800 IU associated with lower odds of severe periodontal disease (OR = 0.67, 95% CI = 0.55-0.81) |
| Gokhale et al., (2013) [29] | RCT | India | 120 (30–lx yy) | NA | 2 weeks | Vit. C --- | four groups -good for you subjects; -chronic gingivitis; -chronic periodontitis, -chronic periodontitis and type 2 diabetes Scaling and root planing with or without vit. C supplementation (450 mg) | Type 2 diabetes | Statistically significant reduction of the bleeding score in the subgroups receiving Vit. C |
| Millen et al., (2013) [32] | CSS | USA | 920 (50–79 yy) | F | --- | Vit. D --- | -Vit. D level -oral examination | Mail service-menopausa | No association Vit. D and alveolar crestal elevation/ tooth loss OR = 0.96, (95%CI: 0.68–one.35). Vit. D associated to clinical attachment level and probing pocket depth (95%CI: 5–53%) |
| Teles et al., (2012 [33]) | CSS | United states of america | 56 (23–71 yy) | Thou/F | 6 months | Vit. D --- | Periodontal patients Scaling, root planing and hygiene instruction Bacteria in sub-gingival plaque Vit. D level | None | No associations betwixt Vit. D and clinical and microbial parameters |
| Bashutski et al., (2011) [35] | RCT | USA | forty (31–65 yy) | Thousand/F | 6 months | Vit. D tablets | 2 groups: -periodontal surgery, Ca (thou mg) and Vit. D (800 UI) supplements and cocky-administered teriparatide for 6 weeks - periodontal surgery, Ca (thou mg) and Vit. D (800 UI) supplements and placebo for vi weeks | None | Vit. D levels had no statistically significant impact on clinical attachment level and probing pocket depth improvements in teriparatide patients |
| Boggess et al., (2011) [36] | CCS | USA | 233 (21–33 yy) | F | --- | Vit. D --- | 2 groups: -pregnant woman with moderate to severe periodontitis -pregnant woman without periodontitis Vit. D level and Oral test between 14 and 26 weeks of gestation | Pregnancy | Significant woman with periodontitis had statistically meaning lower Vit. D levels and more than probable to take Vit. D insufficiency (65% versus 29%) |
| Harpenau et al., (2011) [37] | CT | U.s.a. | 89 (xviii–seventy yy) | 1000/F | eight weeks | Vit. A, C, Eastward, B6, B9, B12 tablets | ii groups with mild to astringent periodontitis: -multivitamin formula -placebo | None | Both groups showed non-significant trends for improvement in gingival, bleeding, probing depth and clinical zipper scores. |
| Abou Sulaiman, et al., (2010) [40] | RCT | Syria | threescore (23–65 yy) | K/F | 3 months | Vit. C tablets | two groups: -chronic periodontitis (n = 30)-fifteen subjects not-surgical treatment plus Vit. C and fifteen subjects non surgical handling alone -salubrious controls(due north = 30) | None | The two groups showed meaning reductions in all clinical measures |
| Liu, et al., (2009) [41] | CT | Communist china | 17 viii(23–41 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | 3 groups: -ambitious periodontitis (AgP) (north = 66) -chronic periodontitis (CP) (n = 52) -healthy controls (n = 60) Oral test/Vit. D level | None | In AgP Vit. D was higher than in healthy controls (29.28 vs. 21.60 nmol/l; p < 0.05) and significantly correlated with bleeding index (r = 0.321; p < 0.05). |
| Linden et al., (2009) [44] | CSS | United Kingdom | 125 viii(60–70 yy) | M | --- | Vit. A--- | Oral examination/questionnaire | None | Vit. A lower in the men with low-threshold periodontitis (p < 0.001) and high-threshold periodontitis (p = 0.002) compared to subjects without periodontitis |
| Miley et al., (2009) [45] | CSS | The states | 51 (50–80 yy) | Thousand/F | --- | Vit. D tablets | 2 groups: -periodontal maintenance + Vit. D (400 IU/day) and Ca (1,000 mg/mean solar day) (n = 23) -periodontal maintenance just (north = 28) Oral examination | None | Periodontal maintenance + Vit. D (400 IU/day) and Ca (1000 mg/day) had lower but not statistically pregnant probing depths |
| Chapple, et al., (2007) [46] | CSS | U.s.a. | xi,480 (25–70 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. A, C, E --- | Oral test/questionnaire/ Vit. A, C, E level | None | Subjects with the highest values of serum Vit. C had 47% (95%CI 32, 58) lower odds of periodontitis than subjects with the everyman values (tendency OR: 0.76, 95%CI 0.69, 0.84) |
| Dietrich et al., (2006) [47] | CSS | USA | 462 (47–92 yy) | M | --- | Vit. C --- | 2 groups: -periodontitis (n = 86) -no periodontitis (northward = 376) Oral examination/Dietary questionnaire | None | Subjects with periodontitis had a Vit. C intake (mg) lower than subjects without periodontitis (120±201 vs 197±267) |
| Neiva et al., (2005) [50] | RCT | U.s.a. | thirty (38–65 yy) | Thousand/F | 180 days | Vit. B complex tablets | two groups: - periodontal surgery and Vit-B for thirty days - periodontal surgery and placebo Oral examination/BANA test | None | Statistically significant difference between mean clinical attachment level between periodontal surgery and Vit. B (+0.41±0.12) and periodontal surgery and placebo (−0.52 ± 0.23) |
| Staudte et al., (2005) [51] | CT | Frg | 80 (22–75 yy) | M/F | ii weeks | Vit. C diet | ii groups: -healthy (north = 22) -periodontitis: using or not grapefruit (n = 38) Oral exam/Vit. C level | None | Bleeding alphabetize statistically significantly decreased after Grapefruit consumption |
| Dietrich et al., (2004) [52] | CSS | Usa | 11,202 (twenty–75 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Oral exam/Vit. D level | None | Vit. D levels were statistically significantly lower in men/women >50 years with greater periodontal attachment loss |
| (b) | |||||||||
| Pavlesen et al., (2016) [22] | CSS/PS | U.s. | 70 (53–85 yy) | F | 5 years | Vit. D --- | Oral examination Vit. D level | Post-menopausa | No clan between Vit. D levels and history or incidence of tooth loss caused by periodontal disease |
| Jimenez et al., (2014) [27] | CSS | Usa | 42,730 (40–75 yy) | M | --- | Vit. D --- | Self-reported tooth loss and periodontitis Predicted Vit. D based on data on 1095 homo | None | Men with highest levels of Vit. D exhibited a significantly lower gamble of molar loss compared with men with lowest levels |
| Iwasaki et al., (2013) [31] | RCS | Japan | 286 (75–80 yy) | M/F | 5 years | Vit. A, D E, B6, B9, B12 tablets | Dietary questionnaire (baseline and after v yy) Oral test (functional tooth units) | None | Subjects with dumb dentition showed a significantly greater turn down in nutrients intake (Vit. A and E) |
| Millen et al., (2013) [32] | CSS | United states of america | 920 (fifty–79 yy) | F | --- | Vit. D --- | Vit. D level Oral examination | Postal service-menopausa | No clan betwixt Vit. D and alveolar crestal height/ molar loss OR = 0.96, (95%CI: 0.68–1.35) |
| (c) | |||||||||
Iv studies were conducted to evaluate the consequence of vitamin D on gingivitis; in one study vitamin D was given alone [30], while in the other iii it was administered in combination with vitamin C [23] or vitamin B and E [eighteen] or vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, B9, C, E [38] through the diet. A dose-dependent issue was plant on gingival scores, showing the supplementation of 2000 International Unit (IU) of vitamin D obtained a greater improvement in gingival parameters compared to lower amount (1000 IU and 500 IU). A similar issue was obtained with a iv-week diet rich in vitamin C, D, Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants. All inflammatory parameters (gingival index, bleeding on probing and the total periodontal inflamed surface surface area) were halved compared to baseline. The administration of a dietary supplement containing different micronutrients (including vitamin D, C, Due east, B circuitous) for iii months produced a slight improvement of the gingival inflammation in students under stress with poor oral hygiene, compared to students also under stress but non provided with the dietary supplement. The half-dozen-month assistants of a dietary supplement containing vitamin A, B1, B2, B6, B9, C, D, Due east in Type two diabetic adults, reduced gingivitis and oral ulcers incidence compared to placebo (p < 0.05).
Five studies analyzed the effect of vitamin C on gingival parameters, three of them considering vitamin C equally the just variable [24,29,49] and two on vitamin C combined with other vitamins [41,55]. All these studies used different administration modalities, including toothpaste, dietary supplement, chewing gum and foods. In the kickoff three studies, vitamin C showed to reduce gingival scores of inflammation. vitamin C and B9 levels were statistically associated to bleeding on probing (p < 0.01) [41]; vitamin A was also associated (p < 0.05), while vitamin B1 and B2 levels were establish to be associated to gingivitis presence in boyish girls, while vitamin A and B3 resulted in not being associated [55]. Iii studies investigated the effects of vitamin B9 on gingival scores, two with the vitamin as the only variable [30,34] and one with vitamin B9 combined with vitamin B12 [48]. Vitamin B9 was administered in patients with epilepsy to reduced Phenytoin-induced gingival overgrowth (PIGO) [23,24,29,thirty,34,38,39,41,49,55]. In both studies vitamin B9 assistants reduced the development of PIGO or delayed its onset. A statistically significantly clan between vitamin B9 and gingival index was institute in smokers (p < 0.01) compared to not-smokers, while vitamin B12 resulted non associated [48]. Finally, a fluoridated toothpaste containing vitamin B3 and pro-vitamin B5 provided a statistically significantly reduction in calculus presence compared to a fluoridated toothpaste not containing vitamins (p = 0.01) [43].
Twelve papers were concerned on the outcome of vitamin D on periodontitis. A reduction of the clinical affliction level (i.e., clinical attachment level and/or probing pocket depth) was described in five papers [17,19,23,45,52], while in iv papers [20,25,33,35] vitamin D levels had no statistically pregnant bear on on clinical attachment level and probing pocket depth improvements in teriparatide patients. Low serum vitamin D levels were not statistically associated to periodontitis and tooth loss in pregnant and post-menopausal women [22,32,36].
Four papers concerned on the effect of vitamin C on periodontitis. Two papers [29,51] underlined the reduction of gingival bleeding consistent to use of vitamin C in patients affected by chronic periodontitis. The apply of fruit or vegetables rich in vitamin C was statistically significantly lower in subjects affected by chronic periodontitis respect to healthy subjects [52]. Serum concentrations of vitamin C, bilirubin, and full antioxidant capacity were inversely associated with periodontitis, the clan being stronger in severe illness [46]. Vitamin B-complex supplement resulted in statistically significantly superior clinical attachment gains and reduction of inflammatory mediators respect to placebo [39,50]. The utilize of a standard multivitamin formula provided modest benefits in reducing periodontal inflammation [37].
Four studies reported on gingivitis/periodontitis/tooth loss and vitamin D during item periods of a adult female's life, pregnancy [21,36], menopause [22,32]. Low vitamin D levels in saliva and serum were statistically associated with gingivitis and periodontitis during pregnancy [21,36]. vitamin D in mail service-menopausal was statistically associated with periodontitis [32], but the association with tooth loss failed [22,32].
3.2. Hard Dental Pathological Processes
The primary characteristics of the studies included regarding hard molar tissues (caries and enamel defects) are reported in Table iii.
Tabular array 3
Main characteristics of the studies included regarding hard dental pathological processes ((a) caries and (b) enamel defects).
| Author (Year) | Type of Study | Location | North Subjects Age-Range | G/F | Study Length | Vitamins Administration | Study Pattern (Groups Treatment) | Physical/Pathologic Status | Outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Syed et al., (2019) [56] | CSS | Saudi arabia | 100 (6–xiii yy) | G/F | --- | Vit. A, C, Due east --- | Ii groups: -DMFS/dmfs=0 -DMFS/dmfs>3 Saliva samples | None | Vit. A not statistically significantly correlated Vit. C and Vit. E. statistically significantly correlated to caries experience |
| Gyll et al., (2018) [10] | CSS | Sweden | 206 (8 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Vit. D serum level DMFT | None | Vit. D level statistically significantly associated to caries feel (OR = 0.96; p = 0.024) |
| Kim et al., (2018) [57] | CSS | Korea | 1688 (10-11 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Vit. D serum level DMFT | None | Vit. D < 0.25 nmol statistically significantly associated to caries feel (p < 0.05) |
| Seminario et al., (2018) [58] | CSS | USA | 276 (1–6 yy) | G/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Vit. D serum level DMFT | Neurologic and genetic disabilities | Vit. D level associated to caries in neurologic (p < 0.01) and genetic (p < 0.01) conditions |
| Wójcik et al., (2018) [lx] | CS | Poland | 121 (6–17 yy) | M/F | 9 months | Vit. D --- | Human recombinant growth hormone Vit. D serum level DMFT | Growth problems | Caries prevalence reduced by 0.66 per each ten ng/mL of Vit. D increase |
| Kühnisch et al., (2017) [61] | RCS | Federal republic of germany | 406 (at birth) | M/F | 10 yy | Vit. D tablets | Vit. D supplementation Fluoride varnish dmfs | None | Vit. D + fluoride < six months associated to caries OR = ii.47 (95%CI = i.32–4.63) Vit. D + fluoride >vi mo. associated to caries OR = 2.08 (95%CI = 1.00–4.32) |
| Pavlesen et al., (2016) [22] | CSS/PS | USA | 558 (53–85 yy) | F | 5 yy | Vit. D --- | Oral examination Vit. D serum level | Mail service-menopausa | Tooth loss due to caries associated to Vit. D OR = one.03 (95%CI =0.62/1.72) |
| Dudding et al., (2015) [63] | MRS | UK | 5545 (3–8 yy) | M/F | --- | Vit- D --- | Vit. D serum level DMFT/dmft | None | Caries not statistically significantly associated to 10 ng/mL of Vit. D increase OR 0.93 (95%CI = 0.83-ane.05) |
| Kühnisch et al., (2015) [64] | CSS | Germany | 1148 (--) | M/F | 10 yy | Vit. D tablets | Vit. D supplementation DMFT/dmft MIH | None | Vit. D statistically significantly associated to caries OR 0.90 (95%CI = 0.82–0.97) per each x ng/mL of Vit. D increase |
| Tanaka et al., (2015) [65] | PSA | Japan | 1210 mother-child (36–46 mo) | M/F | --- | Vit. D diet | Vit. D intake in pregnancy dmft in children | None | OR for dmft ane.06 (95%CI = 0.72–1.56) of Vit. D during pregnancy, quartiles 2, 3 OR for dmft 0.67 (95%CI = 0.44–ane.22) of Vit. D during pregnancy, quartiles iv. |
| Schroth et al., (2014) [66] | RCS | Canada | 207 mother-child (--) | M/F | --- | Vit. D--- | Serum Vit. D in pregnancy ECC Enamel defects | None | Depression serum Vit. D in pregnancy was statistically significantly associated ECC experience |
| Zhang et al., (2014) [67] | CSS | Hong Kong | 600 (12 yy) | M/F | 1 yy | Vit. C tablets | Vit, C intake DMFT BEWE | None | OR for caries experience 1.75 (95%CI = one.xiv–2.69) in girls Vit. C supplements |
| Schroth et al., (2013) [68] | CCS | Canada | 266 (--) | M/F | 2 yy | Vit. D --- | Serum level Vit. D ECC | None | Low Vit. D associated to high ECC levels |
| MacKeown et al., (2003) [70] | CSS | South Africa | 259 (2–5 yy) | M/F | 4 yy | Vit. A, B complex, C, D diet | Vitamins intake dmft | None | Vit. B2, B7, B12 statistically significantly associated to caries incidence |
| Al Malik et al., (2001) [71] | CSS | Kingdom of saudi arabia | 987 (2–5 yy) | M/F | Vit. C --- | Vit. C intake dmft/s, Tooth Erosion | None | Vit. C intake not statistically significantly significant associated to caries. | |
| (a) | |||||||||
| van der Tas et al., (2018) [59] | CS | kingdom of the netherlands | 4750 (six yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Foetal Vit. D MIH at half dozen yy | None | Vit. D not statistically significantly associated to MIH |
| Reed et al., (2017) [62] | PS | USA | 37 (--) | M/F | --- | Vit. D tablets | Vit. D supplementation (starting time twelvemonth of age) | None | Maternal pregnant Vit. D level statistically significantly associated to Enamel hypoplasia in children |
| Kühnisch et al., (2017) [61] | RCS | Germany | 406 (at nascence) | Yard/F | 10 yy | Vit. D tablets | Vit. D supplementation Fluoride varnish MIH | None | MIH not statistically significantly associated with Vit. D + Fluoride <vi mo. OR = 1.71 (95%CI = 0.67–4.38) and Vit. D + fluoride >6 mo. OR = 0.57 (95%CI = 0.21–i.55) |
| Kühnisch et al., (2015) [64] | CSS | Germany | 1148 (--) | 1000/F | x yy | Vit. D tablets | Vit. D supplémentation dmft/DMFT MIH | None | MIH statistically significantly associated to 10 ng/mL of Vit. D increase OR 0.89 (95%CI = 0.82–0.97) |
| Schroth et al., (2014) [66] | RCS | Canada | 207 mother-child (--) | 1000/F | --- | Vit. D --- | Serum Vit. D in pregnancy ECC Enamel defects | None | Low serum Vit. D in pregnancy was statistically significantly associated ECC feel |
| Zhang et al., (2014) [67] | CSS | Hong Kong | 600 (12 yy) | Yard/F | 1 yy | Vit. C diet | Vit. C intake DMFT BEWE | None | Tooth erosion non statistically significantly associated to frequency of Vit. C supplement drinks (p = 0.064) |
| El Aidi et al., (2011) [69] | PS | the netherlands | 572 (x–12 yy) | Chiliad/F | --- | Vitamins (unspecified) tablets | Vitamins intake Tooth Erosion | None | Vitamins intake statistically significantly associated to erosion progression OR = 2.03 (95%CI = 1.fourteen–iii.62) |
| Al Malik et al., (2001) [71] | CSS | Kingdom of saudi arabia | 987 (2–5-yy) | K/F | --- | Vit. C --- | Vit. C intake dmft/due south, Molar Erosion | None | Vit. C intake statistically significantly associated to erosion. |
| Aine et al., (2000) [72] | CCS | Finland | 96 (ane–two yy) | M/F | --- | Vit. D tablets | Vit. D supplementation Enamel defects | Preterm children | Vit. D supplementation was non statistically significantly enamel defects. |
| (b) | |||||||||
Eleven papers were focused on vitamin D and caries; half-dozen of them [10,22,57,58,68] were observational studies showing a statistically significantly clan betwixt vitamin D serum level and caries level and/or experience. Five papers [10,57,58,68] were on children (age range 1–11 years).
Vitamin D handling in children or in mothers during pregnancy were associated to caries incidence or experience in v papers [lx,61,64,65,66]. Two cantankerous-sectional studies [67,71] were done associating vitamin C intake and caries (levels and experience) and erosion in children. Multivitamins intake was related to caries in 2 papers [67,lxx]; vitamin B2, B7, B12 were associated to caries [67], while vitamin A was not statistically significantly correlated and vitamin C and vitamin E. statistically significantly correlated to caries [lxx]. In early babyhood (up to 8 years), serum levels of vitamin D seem to be associated with DMFT and caries take a chance in the following years [x,58,63]. In early teenagers (10–11 years onetime) a significantly less caries experience of the first molars was institute, when serum vitamin D levels are higher than 50 nmol [57]. Another study found a direct correlation of serum vitamin D levels in children, 6–17 years of age. The authors found a drop in DMFT of 0.66 at each 10 ng/ml increase of vitamin D [60]. Regarding the correlation of vitamin C and the occurrence of caries lesions there are controversial results. 1 report found vitamin C supplementation, but also soft drink consumption, to be positively correlated to caries in 12-yr-old children [67]. Another study including 6- to 13-year-old children found negative correlations between vitamins C and E and caries gamble. Salivary vitamin A levels are non to exist statistically significantly associated to caries chance [56]. High intake of especially vitamin B12, riboflavin, pantothenic acid and nicotinic acrid seem to be correlated to lower caries rates in five years sometime children, merely the association seems not clinically meaning [70].
Despite caries, the occurrence of enamel hypoplasia seems to be associated with low blood levels of vitamin D during pregnancy [62], whereas the occurrence of MIH seems non affected by fetal, postnatal and early on childhood levels of vitamin D [59]. One study found no clan between the occurrence of enamel defects and vitamin D in 1- and 2-year-onetime children built-in preterm [72].
Newly erupted permanent teeth of children have immature enamel, which is more susceptible to acid attack of nutritional acids, e.grand. soft drinks or fruit juices. The intake of vitamin C supplements was constitute to be associated with the incidence of erosive tooth wear in early babyhood. In 2- to 5-year-old children, vitamin C supplementation significantly reduced the incidence of erosive tooth wear [71]. A study on 10- to 12-year-onetime children found that an intake of vitamin supplements (not specified) seems non to affect the incidence of erosive molar wear, but decreased their progression significantly [69]. In general, malnutrition and associated deficiency in vitamin intake increases the occurrence of enamel hypoplasia in children [seventy].
iv. Discussion
There is no articulate scientific evidence on the role played by vitamins on oral health. There is a full general consensus on the consequence of vitamins deficiencies or supplementation on oral health but without a substantial scientific evidence.
The aim of this systematic and metanalysis review was to evaluate if in that location were associations between vitamin intake (supplementation or diet intake or saliva/serum level) and gingival/periodontitis and hard dental pathological processes (dental caries, tooth vesture and enamel defects).
The lack of disarming associations and the relative dearth of possible associations suggest that the evidence for oral wellness benefits of vitamins that may be reaped from population-broad vitamin supplementation is weak. The issues to attain positive outcomes from experimental clinical trials are linked to the dosages of vitamins or more effective treatments that might deed as confounding factors, thereby camouflaging the effect of the vitamins. Probable associations, where highly significant effects announced in randomised trials, hold the about hope for clinical translation; notwithstanding, studies pertain to specific populations (children, significant women, patients with systemic diseases), and fifty-fifty in these cases the evidence is not sufficient to make universal recommendations about daily intake. Multivitamin supplement or a combination of two or more vitamins adds more biases equally information technology is non possible to identify the single do good of each vitamin.
Moreover, the majority of papers are short-term papers. Hence, information technology was non possible to provide clear scientific prove for the role played by vitamins. Concerning observational studies, at that place was a wide variety in the use of dietary supplement and clinical parameters used, which could explain the differences institute amongst their results.
Until at to the lowest degree the center of the 18th century, several oral diseases like periodontitis were considered a manifestation of vitamin deficiency [one,eight,73], but in that location is no sufficient data supporting the need for vitamin supplementation for oral health. Vitamin D has been related to gingival inflammation [47] and molar loss [17,19,20,25,33,35,36]. Moreover, vitamins and in particular vitamin D as a promising oral health-preventive amanuensis were the object of several previous reviews [73,74,75,76,77], systematic [74,75,76] and narrative [73,77] leading to a low-certainty determination that vitamins may reduce the incidence of caries and periodontitis.
five. Conclusions
In general, although the existing literature suggests that vitamins are important in the prevention and treatment of oral diseases, at that place is weak show supporting the association betwixt vitamins and both gingival/periodontal disease and hard dental pathological processes.
Overall, future longitudinal studies of the oral outcomes associated with vitamins and focused inquiry on the detailed biological mechanisms will have broader applications in dentistry and medicine.
Supplementary Materials
The following are bachelor online at https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/3/938/s1: Table S1: Listing of excluded papers, Table S2: Quality Cess, Table S3: List of excluded papers after full text evaluation.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, T.G.West. and G.C.; methodology, Yard.G.C., N.C. and M.C.; formal analysis, T.G.W. and C.T.; information curation, One thousand.C.; supervision, P.L.; validation, K.R.E.; original draft preparation, Thousand.1000.C. and C.Yard.; writing—review and editing K.R.East. and P.50. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
All person that had taken part in the report are mentioned every bit authors. This research received no specific grant from whatever funding bureau in public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no disharmonize of interest.
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